Aprendizado
Socrates
From Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( modified JLTS , 2014 )
.
Socrates
ancient philosophy
Full name Socrates ( Σωκράτης )
School / Tradition : Greek Philosophy
Date of birth : ca . 469 BC or 470 BC
* Location : Athens
Date of death 399 BC (70 years )
* Location : Athens
Main interests : Epistemology , Ethics
Influenced by: Parmenides
Influences: Most of the later Western philosophy, more specifically , Plato , Aristotle , Aristippus , Antisthenes
Philosophy Portal
Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης , IPA: . . [ Sɔ krátɛ ː ː s ] , transl Sokrates ; Athens, c 469 BCE - Athens , 399 BCE ) was an Athenian philosopher of the classical period of ancient Greece . Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy , is today an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts in the works of writers who lived later, especially two of his students Plato and Xenophon , and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes . Many argue that Plato's dialogues would be the most comprehensive account of Socrates to have lasted from antiquity to today .
Through its representation in its student dialogues , Socrates has become renowned for his contribution in the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who bequeathed his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method ( elenchus ) . This remains today to be a tool commonly used in a wide range of discussions , and consists of a peculiar type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to get specific answers, but also to encourage a clear and fundamental understanding of subject being discussed . Socrates was Plato who made important and lasting to the fields of epistemology and logic, contributions and the influence of his ideas and his method remain important foundations for much of Western philosophers who followed him.
In the words of British philosopher Martin Cohen , Plato , the idealist , offers " an idol , a master figure , for philosophy . A saint , a prophet of the ' Sun-God ' , a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic . "
Allan Kardec , in the book The Gospel According to Spiritism , Socrates and Plato are precursors of the Christian idea and spiritism .
biography
Plato , disciple of Socrates and one of the most influential philosophers to the present day . It is through their conversations that can be known about the life of Socrates .
Details about the life of Socrates are derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato , the plays of Aristophanes and Xenophon 's dialogues . There is no evidence that Socrates has himself published any work . Some authors argue that it left no writings because in addition to his time in the transmission of knowledge be essentially orally , Socrates was assumed as someone who knows that he knows nothing . Thus , for him , shut the written knowledge , leaving the finished form of tying its author to the strict context of irremovable statements: if these statements include the error , writing not only perpetuates as ensures its transmission.
The works of Aristophanes portrays Socrates as a comic character and its representation should not be taken literally .
life
Born on the plains of Mount Lycabettus , near Athens, Socrates came from a humble family . He was the son of Sophroniscus , 8 - which is why he was called in his youth ios Sōfronískos Sokrates ( Socrates , the son of Sophroniscus ) - a sculptor , carving expert columns in the temples , and Phaenarete , a midwife ( both were relatives of Aristides the Just ) .
Emblem book illustration , portraying Xanthippe emptying a pot about Socrates , the Emblemata Horatiana illustrated by Otho Vaenius , 1607 .
During his childhood , he helped his father in the office of the sculptor . But often his friends made fun of her inability to work the marble. Even when the opportunity arose to help his father , always ended atrapalhando.9 His destination was appointed by the Oracle of Delphi itself as a great educator [ citation needed ] , but it was only through the influence of his mother that he could find his true vocation .
Socrates was married Xanthippe , who was much younger than him, and had a son , Lamprocles10 . There are reports that the couple probably had two more children , and Sophroniscus Menexenus ; . However , according to Aristotle , quoted by Diogenes Laertius , Sophroniscus and Menexenus were children of the second wife of Socrates , Myrto , daughter of Aristides the Just . Satyr and Jerome Rhodes , also cited by Diogenes Laertius , say , the lack of men in Athens , was allowed a married Athenian having children with another woman , and that Socrates would have had Xanthippe and Myrto while .
His friend Crito criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape to prevent his execution . This fact shows that he (like other disciples ) would not have gotten the message that Socrates passes on death ( Phaedo dialogue) .
Socrates used to walk barefoot and had the habit of bathing. On occasion , stop whatever you were doing , stood motionless for hours , mulling over some problem . I once did barefoot on the snow , according to the writings of Plato , which demonstrates his legendary character.
Claudius Aelian Socrates list as one of the great men who liked to play with children : once surprised Alcibiades Socrates playing with his son Lamprocles .
vocation
Anaxagoras , one of the teachers of Socrates
It is said that one day Socrates was taken with his mother to help in a complicated delivery . Seeing his mother perform the work , Socrates soon " philosophized " My mother will not raise the baby just born and will attempt to decrease the pain of childbirth will help you . At the same time , if she did not take the baby , he will die soon , and also the mother will die !
Socrates then concluded that , somehow , he was also a midwife . The knowledge is inside people (who are able to learn by themselves ) . But I can help in the birth of this knowledge . He concluded . So today the teachings of Socrates are known to maiêutica (meaning midwife in Greek ) .
So as soon as his vocation was louder and he started to learn philosophy, where he was a pupil of the philosopher Anaxagoras and Archelaus . His talent soon attracted attention . Either way it was called by the Pythia ( priestess of the temple of Apollo at Delphi , Ancient Greece ) of the wisest of all men ! .
work
No one knows for sure what the work of Socrates , if he had another addition to Philosophy . According to some sources , Socrates learned the trade of potter with his father . In the work of Xenophon , Socrates appears stating that it was dedicated to what he considered the most important art or occupation : maiêutica , the birth of ideas. The Socratic maiêutica worked from two essential moments : a first in which Socrates took his interlocutors to question their own assumptions and theories about any subject , and a second time when the interlocutors led to a new perspective on the theme approach . Hence the maiêutica consisted in an authentic birth of ideas , because , by questioning his interlocutors , Socrates led them to jeopardize their " prejudices " about a subject, leading them to new ideas about the topic under discussion , thus acknowledging his ignorance and generating new ideas , closer to the truth.
Socrates and his pupils , Johann Friedrich Greuter ( work dating from the seventeenth century ) .
Socrates argued that one should always give more emphasis to the demand that does not know , than to convey what it understands , favoring the continued investigation .
Socrates had a habit of discussion and dialogue with people of your city . Unlike his predecessors , he did not found a school, preferring to also perform their work in public places ( mainly in public parks and gyms ) , acting relaxed and uncompromising way dialogue with all people , which fascinated the young , women and political of his time .
Plato says that Socrates did not receive payment for their classes . Their poverty was proof that it was not a sophist .
Several sources , including Plato's dialogues , Socrates mention that he had served the army in several battles . In the Apology , Socrates compares his time in the military service their problems in court , and says anyone on the jury who imagines that he should withdraw from the philosophy should also imagine that the soldiers were to retreat when it was likely that they could die in a battle. Strabo says that , after an Athenian defeat in which Socrates and Xenophon had lost their horses , Socrates Xenophon found lying on the ground , and carried him through several stages until the battle ended .
The trial to death
" I predict to you therefore, ye judges , that ye die myself , that ye suffer , after my death , a far more painful punishment by Zeus , he who infligis me killing me . Ye have condemned me ye will still abide in the hope of giving free accounts of your life, now is the exact opposite will happen to you , I assure you ( ... ) if ye pensardes that killing people , impedireis to reprove you for living evil, you are in error. this way to get rid of those who criticize is neither very effective nor very honorable . " Socrates
" The Death of Socrates" by Jacques - Louis David ( 1787 )
The trial and execution of Socrates are central events in the work of Plato (Apology and Crito ) . Socrates admitted that he could have avoided his sentencing to death by drinking hemlock poison called , had just given up on life. Even after his conviction , he could have prevented his death if he had escaped with the help of friends .
Plato held that Socrates was condemned by political issues obviously . For its part , the prosecution Xenophon ascribed to Socrates fact a personal nature , the desire for revenge . The purpose was not the death of Socrates but take him away from Athens and if that did not happen due to the stubbornness of Socrates .
trial
As soon as the ideas of Socrates were spreading across the city, he garnered more and more disciples .
Thus, the ancient teachers were getting angry . They thought : How could a man of grace teach and preach that is not needed teachers like them? . And: They did not agree with the thoughts of Socrates , who said that to believe in something , you had to check if it really was true .
Therefore Socrates began making several enemies , thus causing a great intrigue. But behold, the Peloponnesian War broke out, all men between 15 and 45 years old were sent to fight . Socrates , for his ability to make people follow him , was then chosen as one of the generals .
At the end of the war , with the intention of saving the few soldiers who were alive , Socrates orders everyone to quickly return to Athens , but leave the dead on the battlefield - contrary to a law which obliged the general to bury all their dead soldiers , or die trying . So , upon arriving, he is arrested .
Using all his powers of persuasion , Socrates manages to convince everyone that it was better to leave some dead who die of all , since they all died , nobody could bury them . Thus he manages freedom .
It was free for another 30 years , when he was arrested again , accused of three crimes :
1 - Do not believe in the Greek gods and customs ;
2 - Joining the evil gods who love to destroy the cities ;
3 - Corrupting young people with their ideas;
The accusers were : Anytus , Meletus and Licon .
Anito - was a democratic leader . Son had a disciple of Socrates who laughed the father of gods and turned against them . Represented the class of politicians. Cooper was a wealthy representing the interests of merchants and industrialists , was powerful and influential .
Meletus - was a new and unknown tragic poet. Was the official accuser , but nothing required him as an official accuser was most respectable , skilled or fearful , but only the one who signed the complaint . Represented the class of poets and soothsayers .
Licon - Little is known of Licon . It was an obscure rhetorician and his name had little importance and authority over the condemnation of Socrates . Represented the class of speakers and teachers of rhetoric. Maybe Licon wished the condemnation of Socrates , because his son have been left to corrupt morally , philosophically and sexually by Callias , Callias and was an associate of Socrates .
These three charges were thus made by Meletus :
" ... Socrates is guilty of the crime of not recognizing the gods recognized by the state and introducing new divinities , he is still guilty of corrupting the youth Punishment Order: death . "
condemnation
" The process and the condemnation of Socrates witness the danger that ignorance makes running to learn , what evil does run to virtue . But this danger is not only apparent , because in reality , it's just that triumph of his executioners . Though who is a victim of them , the triumph of Socrates about the judge dated the day of his execution . " ( Jean Brun )
Given him the chance to defend these accusations , Socrates shows all its capacity for thought .
In his defense, he shows that the charges were contradictory , asking : How can I not believe in gods and simultaneously join them ? .
Even so , the court , consisting of 501 citizens , the condemned . But not death , for they knew that if the condemned to death , thousands of young people would revolt . Condemned him to exile forever, or will be cut off the tongue , preventing it to teach others as well . If he refused , he would be killed .
After receiving his sentence , Socrates uttered : - You leave me the choice between two things : one that I know to be horrible it is to live without being able to pass my knowledge on. The other , I do not know , what is death ... choose for the unknown !
death
" " But this is the time to go : . Myself to death , ye for life Who of us follow the best course nobody knows , except the gods " ." Socrates
Addressing the Athenians who judged him , Socrates said he was grateful to them and loved them, but before that he would obey the gods than they , because while he had a breath of life , could be sure that would not stop philosophizing , having as their only concern walk the streets in order to persuade their fellow citizens , young and old, not to worry or with the body or with fortune , as passionately as the soul in order to make it as good as possible .
Where Socrates was imprisoned before he died .
Socrates then left the court and went to prison . As there was a law that required no executions happened during the trip votativa a sacred ship to Delos , Socrates was in irons for 30 days in the custody of eleven magistrates charged in Athens , police and prison administration .
During these 30 days , he received his friends and chatted with them . Declaring absolutely not want to disobey the laws of the land , Socrates refused the help of friends to get away . And spent time preparing for the extreme step in spiritual discussions with friends.
When the time of implementation, just before drinking the poison , Socrates , in an ironic and sarcastic way (as usual ) , uttered his last words :
- " Crito , we owe a cock to Asclepius ; well, pay unto my debt Think about it . " .
After these words , Socrates drank hemlock ( Conium maculatum ), and in front of their friends , age 70 , died by poisoning .
Plato , in his book Phaedo , well narrated the death of his master :
The death of Socrates
After so speak, took the cup to his lips, quite naturally , without wavering nothing, drank to the last drop .
Until that time , almost all had to hold back tears , but when we saw him drinking, and had drunk all, no one else endured . I also could not help myself : I cried to the living tear. Covering the head, regretted my misfortune ; yes, unfortunately it was not what I wept , but my own luck , to see what kind of friend would see me privately. Christian Coalition rose before me , because he could not hold back the tears . Apollodorus , who from the beginning had not stopped crying , began to howl , weeping and groaning their lamentations to this intimate all present , except Socrates himself .
- What is therefore incomprehensible us? Asked . Sent women out to avoid these exaggerations . I always knew that one should just die with words of good omen. Be calm yourselves ! Be men !
Hearing him speak in this way , we feel ashamed and stopped crying. And he , while walking , feeling heavy legs , lay on his back, as recommended man poison . This , at intervals , groped her feet and legs . After pressing harder feet , asked if he felt anything . Answered no. Then , while compressing his leg , the toe up, showed us that was beginning to get cold and harden . Patting him once again, declared to us that at the time it got to the heart, he would leave . Already it had cooled almost the entire lower abdomen , when , finding his face - it had covered before - said, and his last words were :
- Christian Coalition ( said he ) , we owe a cock to Asclepius . Do not forget to pay off that debt !
" Will do ! " Replied Christian Coalition . See if you mean something else . To this question no longer responded . More time elapsed , gave a start . The man discovered ; had stopped looking . Realizing this , Christian Coalition closed her eyes and mouth .
Such was the end of our friend , Equécrates , man , we can state it in that among all that was given us to know , was the best and also the wisest and fairest . "
Phaedo 117e - 118c .
In the Phaedo , Socrates gives reasons to believe in immortality . When Socrates was condemned to death , cheerfully commented that in this world could ask questions without being eternally condemned to die because he was immortal.
Break and legacy
Socrates (right ) is honored along with Plato , near the modern Academy of Athens, 1926 .
Socrates provoked an unprecedented rupture in the history of Greek philosophy , so she began to consider the philosophers of pre -Socratic and post -Socratic . While the pre -Socratic philosophers , called naturalists , seeking to answer questions like : " What is the nature or substance of things last ? " Socrates , in turn , sought to answer the question : " What is the nature or ultimate reality of man ? "
The Sophists , a group of philosophers ( Plato denied by title ) originating from various cities , traveled the polis , where discursavam in public and teaching their arts such as rhetoric , in exchange for payment . Socrates resembled outwardly them except in thought . Plato says that Socrates did not receive payment for their classes . Their poverty was proof that it was not a sophist . For the Sophists everything should be assessed according to the interests of man and how he sees social reality ( subjectivity ) , according to the maxim of Protagoras : " Man is the measure of all things , of things that are , as they are, of things that are not , as they are not . " . This means that, according to this line of thought , moral rules , the political positions and social relationships should be guided according to individual convenience. For this purpose any person could assert a convincing speech, even if false or without content . The sophists used , in fact , complicated word games , speech to demonstrate the truth of what was intended to achieve. This type of argument has gained the name of sophistry .
In summary , sophistry destroying the foundations of all knowledge, since everything is relative ( relativism ) and the values would be subjective as well as prevented the establishment of a set of behavioral norms that guarantee the same rights to all citizens of the polis . As far as the Sophists , Socrates abandoned the concern to explain and concentrated on the problem of man . However , unlike the Sophists , Socrates caught a deep controversy with these as they sought a last plea for human questions ( " What is good? " " What is virtue " What is justice ? ), While the Sophists stood their reflections from empirical data , the immediate sensory , without worrying about the investigation of a germ of virtue , justice etc well . , from which his own empirical reality could be assessed .
Socrates helped that people were unaware of the discovery of evidence that is the manifestation of the inner soul master. Getting to know yourself would know God itself .
What put Socrates was highlighted in his method , rather than their doctrines . Socrates was based on the argument, insisting that only discovers the truth through reason . His legacy lies primarily in their unshakable conviction that even the most abstract questions admit a rational analysis .
philosophy
Socrates face exposed in the Louvre .
His thinking has developed 3 great ideas :
a) criticism of the Sophists ;
b ) the art of asking ;
c ) the consciousness of man .
Socratic method
The Socratic method is a technique of philosophical inquiry that makes use of simple and almost naive questions that are intended , first, to reveal the contradictions in current thinking of the student, usually based on values and prejudices of society , and assist thus reset these values , learning to think for yourself .
Philosophical ideas
The beliefs of Socrates , as compared to those of Plato, are difficult to discern. There are few differences between the two philosophical ideas . Consequently , differentiating the philosophical beliefs of Socrates , Plato and Xenophon is a difficult task and should always be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might reflect the thinking of other authors .
If something can be said about the ideas of Socrates is that he was morally , intellectually and philosophically different from his Athenian contemporaries. When on trial for heresy and corrupting the youth , used his method of elenchos to demonstrate the erroneous beliefs of their judges. Socrates believed in the immortality of the soul and that he would have received , at some point in their life , a special mission of Apollo Apology , defense Apollonian logos "know thyself " .
Socrates also doubted the Sophist idea that arete ( virtue) could be taught to people. He believed that moral excellence is a matter of inspiration and of kinship , as morally perfect parents did not like children to them. That may have been the cause of not having cared too much about the future of their own children . Socrates frequently says his ideas are not themselves , but their masters , among them Prodicus and Anaxagoras Clazômenas .
love
In the Symposium , Plato, Socrates shows that Diotima of Mantinea was the priestess who started the knowledge and love of genealogy . Diotima 's ideas underlying the Socratic - Platonic concept of love. Also in The Banquet , in the speech of Alcibiades describes the love between Socrates and Alcibiades .
knowledge
Socrates said that his wisdom was limited to their own ignorance . According to him , the truth hidden in each of us , is only visible to the eye of reason (hence the famous phrase "I only know that I know nothing !" ) . He believed that the errors are the result of human ignorance . Never claimed to be wise . The intent of Socrates was to get people to know their unknowns ( "Know thyself " ) . Through questioning of concepts known , what is known , it is perceived dogmas and prejudices .
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum .
virtue
The study of virtue begins with Socrates , for whom virtue is the end of human activity and identifies with the good which befits human nature.
Socrates believed that the best way for people to live was focusing on self-development rather than seek material wealth . Invited others to focus on friendship and a sense of community , believing that this was the best way to grow as a population . Their actions are evidence of that : the end of his life , accepted the death sentence when everyone believed would flee Athens , because he believed that he could not escape his community. Believed that humans possessed certain virtues , both philosophical and intellectual . Said that virtue was the most important of all things .
policy
It is said that Socrates believed that ideas belong to a world that only the wise could understand , making the philosopher became the perfect ruler for a state. Opposed the aristocratic democracy was practiced in Athens during his time ; same idea appears in the Laws of Plato , his disciple . Socrates believed to relate to the members of a parliament to be doing oneself up disingenuous .
Socratic paradox
" The Socratic paradoxes " are ethical positions adopted by Socrates that go against (for ) opinion ( doxa ) common. The main paradoxes are :
"Virtue is knowledge " ;
" No one does evil voluntarily" ;
" The virtues form a unity " ;
" It is better to suffer injustice than to commit it " ( Gorgias 469 BC ) or " never the answer to injustice by injustice , or harm another person , even one who hurt us " ( Crito 49 cd ) .
Socrates said that " No one does evil willingly, but by ignorance, for wisdom and virtue are inseparable . "
bibliography
COTRIM , Gilberto . Basis of Philosophy , 2000;
CHALITA , Gabriel . Living Philosophy , 2005;
GUTHRIE , William K. C. . Socrates . Cambridge University Press , 1994;
MAGALHÃES - VILHENA , V. of . The problem of Socrates . The historical Socrates and the Platonic Socrates . Lisbon: Gulbenkian , 1984;
Mosse , Claude . The process of Socrates . Translation Arnaldo Marques . Rio de Janeiro : Polity Press , 1987;
Spinelli , Michael. Fundamental issues of Greek Philosophy . Sao Paulo : Loyola , 2006, pp. . 45-186 ;
WOLFF , Francis . Socrate . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France , 2000 .
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Aprendizado
Socrates
Socrates
From Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( modified JLTS , 2014 )
.
Socrates
ancient philosophy
Full name Socrates ( Σωκράτης )
School / Tradition : Greek Philosophy
Date of birth : ca . 469 BC or 470 BC
* Location : Athens
Date of death 399 BC (70 years )
* Location : Athens
Main interests : Epistemology , Ethics
Influenced by: Parmenides
Influences: Most of the later Western philosophy, more specifically , Plato , Aristotle , Aristippus , Antisthenes
Philosophy Portal
Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης , IPA: . . [ Sɔ krátɛ ː ː s ] , transl Sokrates ; Athens, c 469 BCE - Athens , 399 BCE ) was an Athenian philosopher of the classical period of ancient Greece . Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy , is today an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts in the works of writers who lived later, especially two of his students Plato and Xenophon , and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes . Many argue that Plato's dialogues would be the most comprehensive account of Socrates to have lasted from antiquity to today .
Through its representation in its student dialogues , Socrates has become renowned for his contribution in the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who bequeathed his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method ( elenchus ) . This remains today to be a tool commonly used in a wide range of discussions , and consists of a peculiar type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to get specific answers, but also to encourage a clear and fundamental understanding of subject being discussed . Socrates was Plato who made important and lasting to the fields of epistemology and logic, contributions and the influence of his ideas and his method remain important foundations for much of Western philosophers who followed him.
In the words of British philosopher Martin Cohen , Plato , the idealist , offers " an idol , a master figure , for philosophy . A saint , a prophet of the ' Sun-God ' , a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic . "
Allan Kardec , in the book The Gospel According to Spiritism , Socrates and Plato are precursors of the Christian idea and spiritism .
biography
Plato , disciple of Socrates and one of the most influential philosophers to the present day . It is through their conversations that can be known about the life of Socrates .
Details about the life of Socrates are derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato , the plays of Aristophanes and Xenophon 's dialogues . There is no evidence that Socrates has himself published any work . Some authors argue that it left no writings because in addition to his time in the transmission of knowledge be essentially orally , Socrates was assumed as someone who knows that he knows nothing . Thus , for him , shut the written knowledge , leaving the finished form of tying its author to the strict context of irremovable statements: if these statements include the error , writing not only perpetuates as ensures its transmission.
The works of Aristophanes portrays Socrates as a comic character and its representation should not be taken literally .
life
Born on the plains of Mount Lycabettus , near Athens, Socrates came from a humble family . He was the son of Sophroniscus , 8 - which is why he was called in his youth ios Sōfronískos Sokrates ( Socrates , the son of Sophroniscus ) - a sculptor , carving expert columns in the temples , and Phaenarete , a midwife ( both were relatives of Aristides the Just ) .
Emblem book illustration , portraying Xanthippe emptying a pot about Socrates , the Emblemata Horatiana illustrated by Otho Vaenius , 1607 .
During his childhood , he helped his father in the office of the sculptor . But often his friends made fun of her inability to work the marble. Even when the opportunity arose to help his father , always ended atrapalhando.9 His destination was appointed by the Oracle of Delphi itself as a great educator [ citation needed ] , but it was only through the influence of his mother that he could find his true vocation .
Socrates was married Xanthippe , who was much younger than him, and had a son , Lamprocles10 . There are reports that the couple probably had two more children , and Sophroniscus Menexenus ; . However , according to Aristotle , quoted by Diogenes Laertius , Sophroniscus and Menexenus were children of the second wife of Socrates , Myrto , daughter of Aristides the Just . Satyr and Jerome Rhodes , also cited by Diogenes Laertius , say , the lack of men in Athens , was allowed a married Athenian having children with another woman , and that Socrates would have had Xanthippe and Myrto while .
His friend Crito criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape to prevent his execution . This fact shows that he (like other disciples ) would not have gotten the message that Socrates passes on death ( Phaedo dialogue) .
Socrates used to walk barefoot and had the habit of bathing. On occasion , stop whatever you were doing , stood motionless for hours , mulling over some problem . I once did barefoot on the snow , according to the writings of Plato , which demonstrates his legendary character.
Claudius Aelian Socrates list as one of the great men who liked to play with children : once surprised Alcibiades Socrates playing with his son Lamprocles .
vocation
Anaxagoras , one of the teachers of Socrates
It is said that one day Socrates was taken with his mother to help in a complicated delivery . Seeing his mother perform the work , Socrates soon " philosophized " My mother will not raise the baby just born and will attempt to decrease the pain of childbirth will help you . At the same time , if she did not take the baby , he will die soon , and also the mother will die !
Socrates then concluded that , somehow , he was also a midwife . The knowledge is inside people (who are able to learn by themselves ) . But I can help in the birth of this knowledge . He concluded . So today the teachings of Socrates are known to maiêutica (meaning midwife in Greek ) .
So as soon as his vocation was louder and he started to learn philosophy, where he was a pupil of the philosopher Anaxagoras and Archelaus . His talent soon attracted attention . Either way it was called by the Pythia ( priestess of the temple of Apollo at Delphi , Ancient Greece ) of the wisest of all men ! .
work
No one knows for sure what the work of Socrates , if he had another addition to Philosophy . According to some sources , Socrates learned the trade of potter with his father . In the work of Xenophon , Socrates appears stating that it was dedicated to what he considered the most important art or occupation : maiêutica , the birth of ideas. The Socratic maiêutica worked from two essential moments : a first in which Socrates took his interlocutors to question their own assumptions and theories about any subject , and a second time when the interlocutors led to a new perspective on the theme approach . Hence the maiêutica consisted in an authentic birth of ideas , because , by questioning his interlocutors , Socrates led them to jeopardize their " prejudices " about a subject, leading them to new ideas about the topic under discussion , thus acknowledging his ignorance and generating new ideas , closer to the truth.
Socrates and his pupils , Johann Friedrich Greuter ( work dating from the seventeenth century ) .
Socrates argued that one should always give more emphasis to the demand that does not know , than to convey what it understands , favoring the continued investigation .
Socrates had a habit of discussion and dialogue with people of your city . Unlike his predecessors , he did not found a school, preferring to also perform their work in public places ( mainly in public parks and gyms ) , acting relaxed and uncompromising way dialogue with all people , which fascinated the young , women and political of his time .
Plato says that Socrates did not receive payment for their classes . Their poverty was proof that it was not a sophist .
Several sources , including Plato's dialogues , Socrates mention that he had served the army in several battles . In the Apology , Socrates compares his time in the military service their problems in court , and says anyone on the jury who imagines that he should withdraw from the philosophy should also imagine that the soldiers were to retreat when it was likely that they could die in a battle. Strabo says that , after an Athenian defeat in which Socrates and Xenophon had lost their horses , Socrates Xenophon found lying on the ground , and carried him through several stages until the battle ended .
The trial to death
" I predict to you therefore, ye judges , that ye die myself , that ye suffer , after my death , a far more painful punishment by Zeus , he who infligis me killing me . Ye have condemned me ye will still abide in the hope of giving free accounts of your life, now is the exact opposite will happen to you , I assure you ( ... ) if ye pensardes that killing people , impedireis to reprove you for living evil, you are in error. this way to get rid of those who criticize is neither very effective nor very honorable . " Socrates
" The Death of Socrates" by Jacques - Louis David ( 1787 )
The trial and execution of Socrates are central events in the work of Plato (Apology and Crito ) . Socrates admitted that he could have avoided his sentencing to death by drinking hemlock poison called , had just given up on life. Even after his conviction , he could have prevented his death if he had escaped with the help of friends .
Plato held that Socrates was condemned by political issues obviously . For its part , the prosecution Xenophon ascribed to Socrates fact a personal nature , the desire for revenge . The purpose was not the death of Socrates but take him away from Athens and if that did not happen due to the stubbornness of Socrates .
trial
As soon as the ideas of Socrates were spreading across the city, he garnered more and more disciples .
Thus, the ancient teachers were getting angry . They thought : How could a man of grace teach and preach that is not needed teachers like them? . And: They did not agree with the thoughts of Socrates , who said that to believe in something , you had to check if it really was true .
Therefore Socrates began making several enemies , thus causing a great intrigue. But behold, the Peloponnesian War broke out, all men between 15 and 45 years old were sent to fight . Socrates , for his ability to make people follow him , was then chosen as one of the generals .
At the end of the war , with the intention of saving the few soldiers who were alive , Socrates orders everyone to quickly return to Athens , but leave the dead on the battlefield - contrary to a law which obliged the general to bury all their dead soldiers , or die trying . So , upon arriving, he is arrested .
Using all his powers of persuasion , Socrates manages to convince everyone that it was better to leave some dead who die of all , since they all died , nobody could bury them . Thus he manages freedom .
It was free for another 30 years , when he was arrested again , accused of three crimes :
1 - Do not believe in the Greek gods and customs ;
2 - Joining the evil gods who love to destroy the cities ;
3 - Corrupting young people with their ideas;
The accusers were : Anytus , Meletus and Licon .
Anito - was a democratic leader . Son had a disciple of Socrates who laughed the father of gods and turned against them . Represented the class of politicians. Cooper was a wealthy representing the interests of merchants and industrialists , was powerful and influential .
Meletus - was a new and unknown tragic poet. Was the official accuser , but nothing required him as an official accuser was most respectable , skilled or fearful , but only the one who signed the complaint . Represented the class of poets and soothsayers .
Licon - Little is known of Licon . It was an obscure rhetorician and his name had little importance and authority over the condemnation of Socrates . Represented the class of speakers and teachers of rhetoric. Maybe Licon wished the condemnation of Socrates , because his son have been left to corrupt morally , philosophically and sexually by Callias , Callias and was an associate of Socrates .
These three charges were thus made by Meletus :
" ... Socrates is guilty of the crime of not recognizing the gods recognized by the state and introducing new divinities , he is still guilty of corrupting the youth Punishment Order: death . "
condemnation
" The process and the condemnation of Socrates witness the danger that ignorance makes running to learn , what evil does run to virtue . But this danger is not only apparent , because in reality , it's just that triumph of his executioners . Though who is a victim of them , the triumph of Socrates about the judge dated the day of his execution . " ( Jean Brun )
Given him the chance to defend these accusations , Socrates shows all its capacity for thought .
In his defense, he shows that the charges were contradictory , asking : How can I not believe in gods and simultaneously join them ? .
Even so , the court , consisting of 501 citizens , the condemned . But not death , for they knew that if the condemned to death , thousands of young people would revolt . Condemned him to exile forever, or will be cut off the tongue , preventing it to teach others as well . If he refused , he would be killed .
After receiving his sentence , Socrates uttered : - You leave me the choice between two things : one that I know to be horrible it is to live without being able to pass my knowledge on. The other , I do not know , what is death ... choose for the unknown !
death
" " But this is the time to go : . Myself to death , ye for life Who of us follow the best course nobody knows , except the gods " ." Socrates
Addressing the Athenians who judged him , Socrates said he was grateful to them and loved them, but before that he would obey the gods than they , because while he had a breath of life , could be sure that would not stop philosophizing , having as their only concern walk the streets in order to persuade their fellow citizens , young and old, not to worry or with the body or with fortune , as passionately as the soul in order to make it as good as possible .
Where Socrates was imprisoned before he died .
Socrates then left the court and went to prison . As there was a law that required no executions happened during the trip votativa a sacred ship to Delos , Socrates was in irons for 30 days in the custody of eleven magistrates charged in Athens , police and prison administration .
During these 30 days , he received his friends and chatted with them . Declaring absolutely not want to disobey the laws of the land , Socrates refused the help of friends to get away . And spent time preparing for the extreme step in spiritual discussions with friends.
When the time of implementation, just before drinking the poison , Socrates , in an ironic and sarcastic way (as usual ) , uttered his last words :
- " Crito , we owe a cock to Asclepius ; well, pay unto my debt Think about it . " .
After these words , Socrates drank hemlock ( Conium maculatum ), and in front of their friends , age 70 , died by poisoning .
Plato , in his book Phaedo , well narrated the death of his master :
The death of Socrates
After so speak, took the cup to his lips, quite naturally , without wavering nothing, drank to the last drop .
Until that time , almost all had to hold back tears , but when we saw him drinking, and had drunk all, no one else endured . I also could not help myself : I cried to the living tear. Covering the head, regretted my misfortune ; yes, unfortunately it was not what I wept , but my own luck , to see what kind of friend would see me privately. Christian Coalition rose before me , because he could not hold back the tears . Apollodorus , who from the beginning had not stopped crying , began to howl , weeping and groaning their lamentations to this intimate all present , except Socrates himself .
- What is therefore incomprehensible us? Asked . Sent women out to avoid these exaggerations . I always knew that one should just die with words of good omen. Be calm yourselves ! Be men !
Hearing him speak in this way , we feel ashamed and stopped crying. And he , while walking , feeling heavy legs , lay on his back, as recommended man poison . This , at intervals , groped her feet and legs . After pressing harder feet , asked if he felt anything . Answered no. Then , while compressing his leg , the toe up, showed us that was beginning to get cold and harden . Patting him once again, declared to us that at the time it got to the heart, he would leave . Already it had cooled almost the entire lower abdomen , when , finding his face - it had covered before - said, and his last words were :
- Christian Coalition ( said he ) , we owe a cock to Asclepius . Do not forget to pay off that debt !
" Will do ! " Replied Christian Coalition . See if you mean something else . To this question no longer responded . More time elapsed , gave a start . The man discovered ; had stopped looking . Realizing this , Christian Coalition closed her eyes and mouth .
Such was the end of our friend , Equécrates , man , we can state it in that among all that was given us to know , was the best and also the wisest and fairest . "
Phaedo 117e - 118c .
In the Phaedo , Socrates gives reasons to believe in immortality . When Socrates was condemned to death , cheerfully commented that in this world could ask questions without being eternally condemned to die because he was immortal.
Break and legacy
Socrates (right ) is honored along with Plato , near the modern Academy of Athens, 1926 .
Socrates provoked an unprecedented rupture in the history of Greek philosophy , so she began to consider the philosophers of pre -Socratic and post -Socratic . While the pre -Socratic philosophers , called naturalists , seeking to answer questions like : " What is the nature or substance of things last ? " Socrates , in turn , sought to answer the question : " What is the nature or ultimate reality of man ? "
The Sophists , a group of philosophers ( Plato denied by title ) originating from various cities , traveled the polis , where discursavam in public and teaching their arts such as rhetoric , in exchange for payment . Socrates resembled outwardly them except in thought . Plato says that Socrates did not receive payment for their classes . Their poverty was proof that it was not a sophist . For the Sophists everything should be assessed according to the interests of man and how he sees social reality ( subjectivity ) , according to the maxim of Protagoras : " Man is the measure of all things , of things that are , as they are, of things that are not , as they are not . " . This means that, according to this line of thought , moral rules , the political positions and social relationships should be guided according to individual convenience. For this purpose any person could assert a convincing speech, even if false or without content . The sophists used , in fact , complicated word games , speech to demonstrate the truth of what was intended to achieve. This type of argument has gained the name of sophistry .
In summary , sophistry destroying the foundations of all knowledge, since everything is relative ( relativism ) and the values would be subjective as well as prevented the establishment of a set of behavioral norms that guarantee the same rights to all citizens of the polis . As far as the Sophists , Socrates abandoned the concern to explain and concentrated on the problem of man . However , unlike the Sophists , Socrates caught a deep controversy with these as they sought a last plea for human questions ( " What is good? " " What is virtue " What is justice ? ), While the Sophists stood their reflections from empirical data , the immediate sensory , without worrying about the investigation of a germ of virtue , justice etc well . , from which his own empirical reality could be assessed .
Socrates helped that people were unaware of the discovery of evidence that is the manifestation of the inner soul master. Getting to know yourself would know God itself .
What put Socrates was highlighted in his method , rather than their doctrines . Socrates was based on the argument, insisting that only discovers the truth through reason . His legacy lies primarily in their unshakable conviction that even the most abstract questions admit a rational analysis .
philosophy
Socrates face exposed in the Louvre .
His thinking has developed 3 great ideas :
a) criticism of the Sophists ;
b ) the art of asking ;
c ) the consciousness of man .
Socratic method
The Socratic method is a technique of philosophical inquiry that makes use of simple and almost naive questions that are intended , first, to reveal the contradictions in current thinking of the student, usually based on values and prejudices of society , and assist thus reset these values , learning to think for yourself .
Philosophical ideas
The beliefs of Socrates , as compared to those of Plato, are difficult to discern. There are few differences between the two philosophical ideas . Consequently , differentiating the philosophical beliefs of Socrates , Plato and Xenophon is a difficult task and should always be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might reflect the thinking of other authors .
If something can be said about the ideas of Socrates is that he was morally , intellectually and philosophically different from his Athenian contemporaries. When on trial for heresy and corrupting the youth , used his method of elenchos to demonstrate the erroneous beliefs of their judges. Socrates believed in the immortality of the soul and that he would have received , at some point in their life , a special mission of Apollo Apology , defense Apollonian logos "know thyself " .
Socrates also doubted the Sophist idea that arete ( virtue) could be taught to people. He believed that moral excellence is a matter of inspiration and of kinship , as morally perfect parents did not like children to them. That may have been the cause of not having cared too much about the future of their own children . Socrates frequently says his ideas are not themselves , but their masters , among them Prodicus and Anaxagoras Clazômenas .
love
In the Symposium , Plato, Socrates shows that Diotima of Mantinea was the priestess who started the knowledge and love of genealogy . Diotima 's ideas underlying the Socratic - Platonic concept of love. Also in The Banquet , in the speech of Alcibiades describes the love between Socrates and Alcibiades .
knowledge
Socrates said that his wisdom was limited to their own ignorance . According to him , the truth hidden in each of us , is only visible to the eye of reason (hence the famous phrase "I only know that I know nothing !" ) . He believed that the errors are the result of human ignorance . Never claimed to be wise . The intent of Socrates was to get people to know their unknowns ( "Know thyself " ) . Through questioning of concepts known , what is known , it is perceived dogmas and prejudices .
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum .
virtue
The study of virtue begins with Socrates , for whom virtue is the end of human activity and identifies with the good which befits human nature.
Socrates believed that the best way for people to live was focusing on self-development rather than seek material wealth . Invited others to focus on friendship and a sense of community , believing that this was the best way to grow as a population . Their actions are evidence of that : the end of his life , accepted the death sentence when everyone believed would flee Athens , because he believed that he could not escape his community. Believed that humans possessed certain virtues , both philosophical and intellectual . Said that virtue was the most important of all things .
policy
It is said that Socrates believed that ideas belong to a world that only the wise could understand , making the philosopher became the perfect ruler for a state. Opposed the aristocratic democracy was practiced in Athens during his time ; same idea appears in the Laws of Plato , his disciple . Socrates believed to relate to the members of a parliament to be doing oneself up disingenuous .
Socratic paradox
" The Socratic paradoxes " are ethical positions adopted by Socrates that go against (for ) opinion ( doxa ) common. The main paradoxes are :
"Virtue is knowledge " ;
" No one does evil voluntarily" ;
" The virtues form a unity " ;
" It is better to suffer injustice than to commit it " ( Gorgias 469 BC ) or " never the answer to injustice by injustice , or harm another person , even one who hurt us " ( Crito 49 cd ) .
Socrates said that " No one does evil willingly, but by ignorance, for wisdom and virtue are inseparable . "
bibliography
COTRIM , Gilberto . Basis of Philosophy , 2000;
CHALITA , Gabriel . Living Philosophy , 2005;
GUTHRIE , William K. C. . Socrates . Cambridge University Press , 1994;
MAGALHÃES - VILHENA , V. of . The problem of Socrates . The historical Socrates and the Platonic Socrates . Lisbon: Gulbenkian , 1984;
Mosse , Claude . The process of Socrates . Translation Arnaldo Marques . Rio de Janeiro : Polity Press , 1987;
Spinelli , Michael. Fundamental issues of Greek Philosophy . Sao Paulo : Loyola , 2006, pp. . 45-186 ;
WOLFF , Francis . Socrate . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France , 2000 .
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